The trilateral root j-h-d, vocalized either as jahada or jahuda, denotes the action of expending effort. Most lexicons, among them Lisān al-ʿArab, distinguish between jahada and jahuda, with jahada referring simply to the expenditure of effort, and jahuda denoting the same process, but with an added element of hardship and difficulty. Commonly used words derived from the j-h-d root include the verbal nouns jihad and mujāhadah, which denote the process of extreme exertion and effort on the level of speech or action; and the nouns majhūd and tajāhud, which convey the same sense as ijtihad, that is, the process of...

The practice of ijtihad must be based on an authoritative source. When the source of one’s ijtihad is a statement by the Messenger of God, this statement is authoritative in and of itself, supported by the Qur’anic revelation he had received and the infallibility with which he delivered the message he had been given.

According to al-Shawkānī (d. 1250 ah/1834 ce), the opinions formed by the Prophet’s Companions through ijtihad were only authoritative bases for legislation if they were affirmed and approved by the Prophet. Al-Shawkānī stated that the first step in the process of ijtihad is to look to...

One of the most controversial ijtihad-related topics has been the conditions that must be met by the mujtahid, that is, the individual deemed qualified to engage in ijtihad. Uṣūl scholars have differed widely over the types of conditions that must be met, and their stringency or leniency.

This controversy has continued into modern times, especially given the Muslim community’s failure to progress in numerous areas of its life. Controversy has raged over how much expertise a mujtahid is expected to have in various fields, particularly that of Islamic law. Contemporary Islamic thought still exhibits the lingering effects of ages of...

The triliteral root j-d-d has many denotations. The verb jadda (verbal noun, jiddah), for example, means to be or become new, and is thus related semantically to the verb ijtahada, which involves the expenditure of effort to emerge with new meanings. The original denotation of the verb jadda was to cut off (verbal noun, jadd). The adjective jadūd, when applied to a she-camel, means that her milk has stopped flowing, and a new robe (thawb jadīd) is one that was newly cut. Related verb forms are tajaddada (to be renewed), jaddada (to renew), and istajadda (to emerge newly). The verbal...

In a discussion of the triliteral root q-l-d, Ibn Fāris (d. 395 ah/1004 ce) wrote:

The letters qāf, lām and dāl make up two sound roots, one of which denotes the act of hanging or suspending something on something or someone, and the other of which denotes fortune or destiny. The original meaning of this root is that of twisting or plaiting. The derivative noun qilādah refers to a necklace, while the phrase qalladahu al-amr means that someone assigned or appointed someone to a task.

The plural of qilādah (qalā’id), which occurs once in the Qur’an, is consistent with the...

The word ummah is used in the Qur’an in four primary senses: (1) Community, as in Sūrah al-Baqarah, 2:128, where Abraham and Ishmael pray saying, “O our Sustainer! Make us surrender ourselves unto Thee, and make out of our offspring a community that shall surrender itself unto You, (ummatan muslimatan laka)!…” This sense is also found in Sūrah al-Baqarah, 2:213, which reads, “All humankind were once one single community (ummatan wāḥidah); [then they began to differ – ] whereupon God raised up the prophets as heralds of glad tidings and as warners, and through them bestowed revelation from on high,...

The triliteral root r-j-ʿ conveys the sense of ‘returning’. A derivative of this root occurs in Sūrah al-ʿAlaq, 96:8, which reads, “For, behold, unto your Sustainer all must return (innā ilā rabbika alrujʿā).” Hence, the term marjaʿiyyah refers to something or someone to whom one ‘returns’, that is, to which people appeal, such as a universal, inclusive principle, in order to resolve a conflict or disagreement.

The term marjaʿiyyah occurs frequently in contemporary writings. Of course, what one individual or group appeals to as a source of authority will differ from what some other individual or group appeals to, since...

The claim has often been made by Orientalists and others, in both ancient times and modern, that Islam is not truly universal or capable of assimilating a variety of peoples and cultures. The principle arguments offered in favor of this view are that: (1) the Qur’an is in the Arabic language and can therefore be understood only by Arabs; (2) the Qur’an came as a response to specific situations and circumstances that were relevant to the inhabitants of the Arabian peninsula in the seventh century ce; and (3) in his early days as a Prophet, the Messenger of God did...

Culture might be said to be the sum total of the moral traits and social values that impact the individual from birth. According to Burhan Ghalioun, a vital culture is one that will only add new elements to its existing store of knowledge or imagination if they are compatible with well-established previous experiences. These new elements are then adapted and assimilated into the culture’s existing moral, intellectual and religious nexus.

As for the process by which cultures are formed, Bennabi holds that the type of culture that comes into existence in a given time and place is determined by the...

The writings that have dealt with the weaknesses in the Muslim world community and the causes underlying its decline are of great importance. However they are inadequate in both quantity and quality. The situation was summed up neatly by Ibn Ashur when he said:

Imam al-Ghazālī lamented the demise of the religious sciences and labored to revive them. Imam al-Ṭurṭūshī (451-521 ah/1059-1127 ce) decried the emergence of unfounded religious innovations and labored to purge the religion of them. As for al-Qāḍī Abū Bakr ibn al-ʿArabī (468-543 ah/1076-1148 ce), he wrote his famous work Al-ʿAwāṣim min al-Qawāsim in defense of the...

The failure of so many Islamic reform movements points to the existence of deep-seated defects that need to be identified and corrected on a broad scale. In addition to promoting innovative, reformist interpretations and correcting the concepts that underlie these defects, there is a need to examine three major links in the chain that makes up contemporary Islamic thought. These three links are: a creedal framework for thought and action; moderation; and realistic applications.

The triliteral root ʿ-q-d from which we derive the Arabic word for creed (ʿaqīdah) bears the sense of tying or knotting. “I knotted the rope” (ʿaqadtu...